Dec. 30, 2024
In this article, we examine the viability of sodium batteries, weighing their benefits against the challenges they face.
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As the world grapples with the environmental and supply challenges posed by lithium-ion batteries, the search is on for more sustainable and accessible alternatives. This is where sodium batteries come in - a potential game-changer in the world of energy storage. With an abundance of sodium resources compared to lithium, these batteries could offer a promising solution to the issues plaguing current battery technology.
' In this article, we examine the viability of sodium batteries, weighing their benefits against the challenges they face.
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have become indispensable in our technology-driven world, playing a crucial role in furthering sustainable energy solutions. Their advantages are clear: high energy density, lightweight composition, and rechargeability make them superior in efficiency and longevity compared to many other alternatives. This is why they're so popular in consumer electronics, from mobile phones to laptops, and even in electric vehicles.
Beyond individual devices, lithium-ion batteries are also a crucial component of grid-storage systems, ensuring the consistent flow of electricity from renewable sources such as wind and solar (vital to combating climate change). In fact, the transformative impact of lithium-ion batteries is so significant that it led to a Nobel Prize being awarded to the battery creators in .
However, producing lithium-ion batteries presents substantial challenges. The finite nature of lithium resources raises concerns about sustainable supply as demand escalates.
Furthermore, the extraction of lithium and other rare earth metals like cobalt and nickel, essential for these batteries, involves water-intensive and polluting mining processes that can wreak havoc on local ecosystems. Additionally, communities near mining sites often grapple with water scarcity and health problems stemming from the contamination of their natural resources.
In particular, cobalt mining in the Democratic Republic of Congo made headlines recently for its substandard working conditions, potential human rights abuses, and threat to human health. Mining operations are also increasingly displacing local communities to expand their activities, catering to the escalating worldwide demand for resources. The ethical implications of such mining practices have sparked serious debates about the sustainability of lithium-ion batteries.
In terms of recycling, lithium-ion batteries also pose a complex challenge. The very qualities that make them efficient and lightweight - namely, the mix of rare metals - also make them difficult to recycle. The recycling process is not only technically challenging but also not yet cost-effective compared to the extraction of new materials. As a result, a vast majority of these batteries end up in landfills, leading to hazardous waste concerns. Current global recycling rates for lithium-ion batteries are low, and the push for better recycling technologies is critical as the demand for these batteries continues to soar.
''Only 5% of lithium-ion batteries around the world are estimated to be recycled.
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In the search for sustainable and ethical energy storage, sodium batteries are emerging as a compelling alternative to conventional lithium-ion batteries. With sodium's easy availability ' thanks to its abundance in ocean salt ' we're looking at a resource that's much easier to come by than lithium. What's more, is that chemists have managed to create a sodium-based battery that doesn't rely on the use of cobalt or nickel - metals that are not only scarce but also tarnished by ethical mining concerns.
' Did you know? Sodium is times more abundant than lithium!
The concept of sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries is quickly moving from the laboratory to the real world. Engineers are fine-tuning the designs to optimize performance and safety, while manufacturers, notably in China, are ramping up production. This momentum suggests a shift in the battery industry, with sodium-ion batteries potentially offering a more environmentally friendly alternative to lithium-ion batteries.
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Sodium batteries operate on the same basic principle as their lithium-ion counterparts, tapping into the reactive nature of alkali metals. Both lithium and sodium reside in the same family on the periodic table, known for their eagerness to react. This is because they have a single electron in their outer shell, which they can easily give up. When these metals react with water, they lose this outer electron, leading to a release of energy - fizzing or even exploding - and forming compounds like lithium hydroxide or sodium chloride (our everyday table salt).
In a battery, when the electron is released from the sodium or lithium atom, it doesn't immediately recombine with another atom. Instead, it travels through a circuit - this flow of electrons is what we experience as electrical current. Meanwhile, the atom it left (now missing its electron and positively charged) takes a different path through a special liquid or gel inside the battery called an electrolyte. This separation of the flow of electrons and ions is essential to how the battery stores and releases energy.
If you reverse the process and apply an external current, you can push the electrons back to their starting point, recharging the battery. This reactivity is what makes both lithium and sodium so useful in batteries.
However, sodium has a catch - sodium ions are bigger, with more protons, neutrons, and an extra electron shell compared to lithium. This means that size for size, sodium batteries are heftier and bulkier than their lithium counterparts for the same amount of energy. That's why, despite sodium's abundance and lower cost, lithium initially took the lead in battery tech. But with advancements in design and materials, sodium batteries are starting to show that they might just have what it takes to compete, especially in applications where the battery's weight and size are less critical.
Sodium batteries operate on the same basic principle as their lithium-ion counterparts, tapping into the reactive nature of alkali metals. Both lithium and sodium reside in the same family on the periodic table, known for their eagerness to react. This is because they have a single electron in their outer shell, which they can easily give up. When these metals react with water, they lose this outer electron, leading to a release of energy - fizzing or even exploding - and forming compounds like lithium hydroxide or sodium chloride (our everyday table salt).
In a battery, when the electron is released from the sodium or lithium atom, it doesn't immediately recombine with another atom. Instead, it travels through a circuit - this flow of electrons is what we experience as electrical current. Meanwhile, the atom it left (now missing its electron and positively charged) takes a different path through a special liquid or gel inside the battery called an electrolyte. This separation of the flow of electrons and ions is essential to how the battery stores and releases energy.
If you reverse the process and apply an external current, you can push the electrons back to their starting point, recharging the battery. This reactivity is what makes both lithium and sodium so useful in batteries.
However, sodium has a catch - its atoms are bigger, with more protons, neutrons, and an extra electron shell compared to lithium. This means that size for size, sodium batteries are heftier and bulkier than their lithium counterparts for the same amount of energy. That's why, despite sodium's abundance and lower cost, lithium initially took the lead in battery tech. But with advancements in design and materials, sodium batteries are starting to show that they might just have what it takes to compete, especially in applications where the battery's weight and size are less critical.
How do sodium batteries stack up against traditional lithium-ion batteries? We've outlined the main differences in the table below:
Parameter Sodium-Ion Batteries Lithium-Ion Batteries Winner Energy Density 150-160 Wh/kg 250-260 Wh/kg Lithium-Ion Cycle Life Shorter cycle life Longer cycle life Lithium-Ion Cost Lower due to abundant sodium and simpler extraction processes Higher due to scarcity and complex extraction of lithium Sodium-Ion Environmental Impact Higher greenhouse gas emissions per unit energy currently Lower greenhouse gas emissions per unit energy currently Lithium-Ion (currently) Resource Availability High, sodium is abundant and widely distributed Limited, lithium is scarce and geographically concentrated Sodium-Ion Safety Lower risk of thermal runaway and non-flammable Medium risk of thermal runaway and flammable Sodium-Ion Recyclability Higher potential for non-toxic recycling Lower, complex and energy-intensive recycling processes Sodium-Ion Optimal Temperature Range Better performance in extreme temperatures Optimal performance between 15-35°C, limited at extremes Sodium-Ion Charging Speed Slower due to lower diffusion coefficient of sodium ions Faster due to higher diffusion coefficient of lithium ions Lithium-Ion' ' While lithium-ion batteries currently lead in energy density and cycle life, making them ideal for high-energy applications, sodium-ion batteries show promise for the future with their cost efficiency, safety, and resource availability. As technology advances, sodium-ion batteries could become a more viable and sustainable alternative, particularly for large-scale energy storage. '
When it comes to batteries, size and weight are often as important as how much power they pack. Lithium, being the third-lightest element, has been the go-to for creating compact, energy-dense batteries that are ideal for smartphones and electric vehicles (EVs). The lightweight nature of lithium-ion batteries has been a driving force behind their widespread adoption since they allow phones to be sleeker and EVs to travel further on a single charge.
But not every situation demands the smallest and lightest battery possible. For example, in grid-scale energy storage systems that capture and store power from renewable sources, or in heavy transportation like trucks and ships, the battery's size isn't as critical. This is where sodium batteries come into play. Sodium sits just below lithium on the periodic table and shares some characteristics, but it's heavier and larger. This means sodium batteries tend to be bigger and heavier for the same energy capacity.
However, the size might not be a dealbreaker for certain applications. What's more is that sodium batteries are starting to catch up in terms of energy density, reaching levels that some of the early lithium-ion batteries had a decade ago. And while they may not yet be suitable for powering a cross-country EV road trip, they could be sufficient for daily commutes or city driving.
Perhaps most appealing to developers is the cost advantage of sodium. Recent advancements mean that sodium batteries are beginning to rival certain lithium-ion batteries, especially those using lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cathodes. LFP batteries are cheaper but less energy-dense than other lithium-ion technologies. Sodium-ion batteries are showing promise for delivering an even more cost-effective option, potentially offering cheaper EVs with a decent range.
' While sodium batteries may not be about to replace lithium-ion batteries in every application, they offer a compelling alternative where size and weight are less of a constraint. With the cost benefits and sufficient energy density for specific uses, sodium-ion technology is poised to carve out its niche in the battery market, complementing rather than competing with lithium-ion solutions. '
Grid storage:
Industrial applications:
By leveraging the strengths of each battery type in their respective ideal applications, both technologies can complement each other in advancing various aspects of energy storage and usage.
China is leading the charge in the development of sodium batteries, recognizing their potential as a key player in the future of electric vehicles (EVs). CATL, a Chinese battery manufacturer, has already announced the first sodium-ion battery for electric vehicles, and carmaker Chery will be among the first to mass use these in its new iCar brand. Other Chinese manufacturers, HiNa and JAC group, are following suit in the mass production of their own sodium-powered EVs, aiming for affordability and practicality with a 155-mile range model that's priced at around $10,000.
The country's commitment to this technology is part of its broader economic strategy, with over 36 Chinese companies actively exploring or producing sodium batteries. The industry's rapid expansion is evident, with dozens of sodium-ion battery factories in China and plans for more, including an international plant in Malaysia. This push reflects a significant shift towards diversifying energy sources and advancing EV technology.
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The future of sodium-based batteries is bright but it's not without its uncertainties. As with any emerging technology, a note of caution is warranted; after all, battery innovations don't happen overnight. It took decades for lithium batteries to evolve from initial research to the technology they are today.
By , it's estimated that sodium battery facilities could have a significant manufacturing capacity, but it's projected that only a little over half of this capacity will be utilized for cell production, representing a mere 2% of the forecasted lithium-cell production for the same year.
Despite the cautious pace, the prospects for sodium batteries are appealing, particularly for grid storage, where they could hold their own against lithium iron phosphate batteries and other emerging technologies. In heavy transport, sodium batteries are an alternative to hydrogen fuel cells, which, while promising, depends on infrastructure that's still in development.
The success of sodium batteries, especially in weight-sensitive applications like electric vehicles, hinges on material costs and scientific advancements. If the prices of rare earth metals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel remain high, it could incentivize efforts to enhance sodium battery technology, potentially improving their energy density and overall performance.
Research is already underway to develop new cathode materials for sodium batteries, aiming to increase energy storage and extend the driving ranges of EVs. As these batteries start entering the market, their evolution and competitiveness against established lithium batteries will be shaped by both economic trends and breakthroughs in materials science.
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The global demand for batteries is surging as the world looks to rapidly electrify vehicles and store renewable energy (Credit: Getty Images)
Lithium batteries are very difficult to recycle and require huge amounts of water and energy to produce. Emerging alternatives could be cheaper and greener.
In Australia's Yarra Valley, new battery technology is helping power the country's residential buildings and commercial ventures ' without using lithium. These batteries rely on sodium ' an element found in table salt ' and they could be another step in the quest for a truly sustainable battery.
The global demand for batteries is surging as the world looks to rapidly electrify vehicles and store renewable energy. Lithium ion batteries, which are typically used in EVs, are difficult to recycle and require huge amounts of energy and water to extract. Companies are frantically looking for more sustainable alternatives that can help power the world's transition to green energy.
Faradion's sodium-ion batteries are already being used by energy companies around the world to store renewable electricity. And they are just one alternative to our heavy and growing reliance on lithium, which was listed by the European Union as a "critical raw material" in . The market size for the lithium battery is predicted to grow from $57bn (£45bn) in , to $187bn (£150bn) by .
The surprising history of one of the greatest ever inventions
To find promising alternatives to lithium batteries, it helps to consider what has made the lithium battery so popular in the first place. Some of the factors that make a good battery are lifespan, power, energy density, safety and affordability.
The downsides are also plentiful: at the end of their lifespan, recycling these batteries is still a complicated process. Extracting individual metals in the battery for recycling involves shedding the metal, then separating them in liquid to extract the desired metal.
"Recycling a lithium-ion battery consumes more energy and resources than producing a new battery, explaining why only a small amount of lithium-ion batteries are recycled," says Aqsa Nazir, a postdoctoral research scholar at Florida International University's battery research laboratory.
An alternative to the evaporation method is hard rock mining, such as is done in Australia. But this has its own drawbacks. For every tonne of lithium mined during hard rock mining, approximately 15 tonnes of CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere.
So, are there viable alternatives to the lithium-ion battery?
Sodium-ion batteries
In sodium-ion batteries, sodium directly replaces lithium. Not unlike lithium-ion batteries, sodium batteries contain four main components ' the anode, the cathode, an electrolyte and a separator. The state of the electrolyte varies depending on the manufacturer.
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Lithium extraction using evaporation ponds, as is done in Chile, comes with a high water footprint (Credit: Getty Images)
Maria Forsyth, chair of electromaterials and corrosion sciences at Deakin University, Australia, says that switching from lithium to sodium battery production would be fairly low cost.
"Manufacturing wise, the transition is easy because the same factories, which currently produce lithium-ion batteries, can manufacture sodium batteries," says Forsyth. "This means production can be scaled quickly.
One benefit of sodium batteries is their safety in transit. "A unique feature of sodium ion technology is the ability to discharge sodium to zero volts for storage and transportation," says Quinn, Faradion's chief executive. "This means it can be stored and transported in safer conditions." The lower flammability risk levels make it a safer option compared to lithium batteries, Quinn says.
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One drawback, however, is low energy density. For EV manufacturers, low energy density batteries are problematic because this affects a vehicle's range. While lithium batteries have energy densities between 150-220 Wh/kg (watt-hour per kilogram), sodium batteries have an lower energy density range of 140-160 Wh/kg. Meng says this means it's less likely that sodium batteries will be commercially scaled for use in EVs that require long ranges between charges.
Solid-state batteries
Solid-state batteries use solid electrolytes, instead of the liquid or aqueous electrolytes common in traditional batteries. The two most popular types of solid electrolytes include inorganic solid electrolytes (oxides and sulfides) and solid polymers (polymer salts, or gel polymers).
Using solid electrolytes reduces the risk of dendrite formation ' those tree-like structures within the battery that can cause battery failure. Solid-state batteries also have a lower risk of flammability, a higher energy density and a faster charging cycle.
However, solid-state batteries may be harder to scale quickly than sodium batteries, says Shirley Meng, professor of molecular engineering at the Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering at the University of Chicago. "Sodium batteries are lower in cost, and are easier to integrate into current lithium battery production plants." Based on a calculation model, the manufacturing costs of solid state batteries are also currently higher than that of lithium ion batteries.
To advance solid battery technology, it's essential to find durable solid-state electrolytes. Some researchers say an ideal solid electrolyte is yet to be found. However, Colorado-based Solid Power has designed a sulfide electrolyte-based battery which it claims is 50-100% higher in energy density than modern lithium ion batteries. Solid Power aims to scale its solid-state tech to power 800,000 electric vehicles per year by .
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Some of the factors that make a good battery are lifespan, power, energy density, safety and affordability (Credit: Getty Images)
Solid-state batteries are currently commercially available in a thin-film format, making them an option for wearable electronics, "internet of things" (IoT) devices, for example home security systems and smart lighting. They can also be used in medical devices, such as llika's Stereax M300, a hip implant device.
But while these batteries have some small-scale uses, they aren't currently an option for large-scale energy storage. "We need to be realistic," says Meng. "Right now, perhaps solid-state batteries are viable for IoT and wearables. But for solid-state tech that can contribute to the energy transition, they will need to be scaled to produce terawatt hours (TWh) of energy."
Lithium-sulphur batteries
Lithium-sulphur batteries are similar in composition to lithium-ion batteries ' and, as the name suggests, they still use some lithium. The lithium is present in the battery's anode, and sulphur is used in the cathode. Lithium-ion batteries use rare earth minerals like nickel, manganese and cobalt (NMC) in their cathode.
So although these batteries contain lithium, the abundance of sulphur makes them a potentially more sustainable option compared with conventional lithium-ion batteries, says Aqsa. "When commercialised, this battery will likely be used for grid storage, though mobile use is also feasible in the longer term."
The similarity with lithium-ion batteries makes lithium-sulphur batteries relatively easy to produce. "They can be manufactured in the same production plants, saving costs of new technical resources," says Nazir.
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Lithium-sulphur batteries also have additional functional advantages as they have a higher energy density, meaning they produce more power, Nazir adds. "Sulphur has the capacity to move more electrons. Lithium-sulphur batteries have nine times the energy density of a lithium-ion battery."
However these batteries suffer from poor chargeability. The formation of tree-like structures called dendrites can lead to short circuiting and battery failure. With prototypes working for as little as 50 charge cycles, they aren't yet feasible for use in EVs, for example.
If one thing is clear, it's that no single battery type is going to be a universal answer to replacing lithium ion batteries. But as Forsyth points out, that's not a bad thing.
"We don't need to replace the lithium in all batteries, what is needed is a diversification of battery technology," says Forsyth. "Maybe it's not having one replacement but having alternatives that can be deployed where it's right to deploy them."
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